Educational Therapists
Educational therapists are licensed professionals who have undergone rigorous practising certification to work with individuals with learning disorders, difficulties, disabilities, and neurodevelopmental disorders. Licensed educational therapists are also qualified full members of professional organisations such as the Association of Educational Therapists (AET), the International Association of Counselors and Therapists (IACT), and the Association of Educational Therapists (Singapore) (AETS). These organisations require members to comply annually with Continuing Professional Development (CPD) requirements, particularly in the area of professional ethics.
Licensure and full membership with professional organisations critically enable educational therapists to procure and administer specific psychoeducational assessment, evaluation, and profiling tools for an in-depth understanding of an individual’s deficits in areas such as cognitive, conative, adaptability, innate, and sensory skills. Educational therapists prepare highly structured and individualised Intervention Plans (IIP) to help individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders, learning disorders, affective disorders, and behavioural difficulties in overcoming their learning challenges and enhancing their learning abilities through a variety of intervention techniques and therapeutic methods. As allied health professionals, educational therapists work in private practice and rehabilitation centres.
Special Educational Needs (SEN) Teachers
Special Educational Needs (SEN) teachers are qualified teachers who work within the broader field of special education, catering to the needs of students with a wide range of disabilities and learning difficulties, including intellectual disabilities, physical disabilities, and emotional or behavioural disorders. SEN teachers work in special education programmes within mainstream schools, special education schools, or inclusive classrooms, providing support to students with diverse needs. They collaborate with other professionals such as educational therapists, reading therapists, educational psychologists, speech therapists and occupational therapists to develop comprehensive plans for students with special needs.
Counsellors
A counsellor is a professional who provides immediate or short-term support to address less severe, current issues arising from everyday life challenges such as social difficulties, career decisions, relationship problems, family issues, workplace stress, or emotionally difficult transitions such as grief. The aim is to help individuals make better-informed decisions. Clinical counsellors provide guidance, support, and education to help clients identify and work towards solutions to their current challenges. Educational counselling is a specialised form of counselling that focuses on providing academic, personal, and therapeutic support to individuals in educational settings, with the ultimate goal of supporting student success and well-being by addressing the diverse needs of learners.
Psychologists
A psychologist is a mental health professional with expertise in human behaviour, emotions, and cognitive processes. They assess and diagnose psychological disorders, conduct research, and provide therapeutic interventions. Psychologists may specialise in areas such as clinical psychology, counselling psychology, or industrial-organisational psychology, among others. Clinical psychologists aim to modify dysfunctional thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, feelings, and behaviours in individuals with affective disorders including anxiety disorder, depression, and bipolar disorder, as well as personality and psychotic disorders, facilitating positive change to improve emotional and social functioning and overall quality of life. This is achieved primarily through talk-based therapies and hypnosis, with Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Interpersonal Therapy, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, and Psychodynamic Therapy being the most commonly used approaches. Note that only a psychiatrist, who is medically trained, is authorised to prescribe pharmacological medication for moderate to severe conditions.
Psychiatrists
A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who specialises in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illnesses and mood disorders. They are licensed to prescribe medication and may also provide psychotherapy. Psychiatrists work in clinical settings, hospitals, or private practices, applying a medical approach to addressing mental health issues.
Psychoeducational Diagnostic Assessment, Evaluation and Profiling
A Psychoeducational Diagnostic Assessment, Evaluation and Profiling (PDAEP) is a process in which licensed educational therapists utilise specific assessment tools and instruments to collect comprehensive information on an individual’s cognitive processes, learning skills, performance abilities, adaptability, and instructional context, in order to determine the appropriate supports and interventions needed (Salvia and Ysseldyke, 1978). PDAEP aims to identify all learning disorders, disabilities, difficulties, deficits, and dysfunctions, as well as the associated functions of the brain, including how a child learns, where and why learning or behavioural challenges originate, and how to promote positive changes in brain neuroconnectivity, memory, reading, learning ability, and overall processing. Licensed educational therapists are specifically trained and authorised to purchase and administer highly specialised diagnostic assessment tools to identify specific learning disorders and disabilities.
Psychological Assessment
A Psychological Assessment focuses primarily on evaluating an individual’s mental state, including dysfunctional thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, feelings, moods, and behaviour, and proposes recommendations for treatment through psychotherapy. It is also used to determine an individual’s personality and character, strengths and weaknesses, gender orientation, and aptitude and motivation, particularly in organisational contexts where specific employment abilities, skills, or potential behaviour under certain circumstances need to be verified or predicted.
Cognitive development is critical to children as it refers to the development of their thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities. Children who experience healthy cognitive development are more likely to succeed academically, socially, and emotionally. The early years of a child’s life are especially important for cognitive development, as the brain develops rapidly during this time. Parents and caregivers can encourage healthy cognitive development by providing a nurturing environment that stimulates the senses, engages curiosity, and challenges children to explore and learn.
1. Building Problem-Solving Abilities
Cognitive development helps children develop problem-solving abilities essential for success in school and beyond. As they mature, children encounter increasingly complex problems, and strong cognitive skills enable them to approach these challenges with confidence and creativity.
2. Enhancing Social and Emotional Development
Cognitive development is closely intertwined with social and emotional development. Children with strong cognitive skills are better able to understand their own emotions and those of others, fostering healthier relationships with peers, family members, and authority figures.
3. Improving Analytical Skills
Cognitive skills enable children to understand relationships between ideas and grasp the concept of cause and effect, strengthening their analytical abilities. An understanding of cause and effect can discourage risky behaviour and support more informed decision-making across all areas of life.
4. The Link Between Movement and Cognitive Development
Research demonstrates a clear link between movement and cognitive development, highlighting the importance of physical activity in learning. Activities such as rolling, crawling, skipping, and jumping, among others, actively support brain development during the early years of a child’s life.
The executive functions are primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex of the brain, though other subcortical structures may also play a role. The prefrontal cortex is divided into two parts: the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), which is involved in self-reflection, memory, and emotional processing; and the lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC), which is involved in sensory processing, motor control, and other cognitive functions. Higher-level processes associated with executive function include planning and reasoning.
Executive function refers to a set of cognitive processes and mental skills that are crucial for cognitive development. The development of executive function skills is highly interrelated and requires the coordination of multiple brain functions, including working memory, mental flexibility, time management, planning, organisation, task initiation, perseverance, and self-regulation. These skills are essential for self-control and managing behaviour, enabling individuals to follow directions, maintain focus, regulate emotions, and attain their goals. They allow individuals to plan, monitor, and execute their goals effectively, making them capable students, responsible classroom citizens, and supportive friends, and helping them grow into adults who are able to manage a wide range of commitments.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) as a tool for diagnosing mental disorders. The fifth edition, DSM-5, was published in 2013, and its text revision, DSM-5-TR, was published in 2021 as an addendum that includes additional content and updated diagnostic codes.
The International Classification of Diseases, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11), is a diagnostic manual covering medical conditions, including mental and behavioural disorders. Produced by the World Health Organisation (WHO), it is intended for use by healthcare professionals worldwide. The ICD-11 includes numerous updates and changes from its predecessor, the ICD-10, including revisions to the classification and diagnostic criteria for mental and behavioural disorders. Notable changes include the addition of new disorders such as gaming disorder and prolonged grief disorder, and the removal of others, such as Asperger’s syndrome.
While the DSM is primarily used in the United States and Canada, focusing on symptom-based diagnosis and covering a large number of mental disorders, the ICD is used globally for both medical and public health purposes, classifying disorders based on their underlying causes across a vast array of medical and mental health conditions. There are notable differences between DSM-5-TR and ICD-11 in terms of functional impairments, duration criteria, and the classification of certain disorders such as Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) and attenuated psychotic symptoms. Nevertheless, both systems have introduced harmonised time course criteria and dimensional assessments.
Disability
A disability is a functional limitation of our physical (including blindness, deafness, and physical handicap), neurological (such as autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and developmental delay), or psychological (such as anxiety disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia) structures that restricts an individual’s ability to perform routine activities within the range considered normal.
Disorder
A disorder is a medical condition that relates primarily to mental health, encompassing neurological and psychological conditions. The DSM-5-TR defines a disorder as “a syndrome characterised by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.”
Commonly known mental disorders include autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, dyspraxia, eating disorder, depression, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), paranoia, neuroses, psychoses, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and schizophrenia. Many disorders range from mild to severe, warranting different types and levels of treatment and therapy.
Disease
A disease is a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs that affects the structure or function of all or part of the body, and is not caused by physical injury. While many diseases are caused by pathogens — such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and microorganisms — and may be infectious, not all diseases are pathogenic or communicable. Autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease are all examples of non-communicable diseases.
Difficulty
A difficulty is a phase of struggle or challenge that impedes a person from achieving a desired goal or aim. The disability, disorder, or disease a person experiences may inherently create difficulties that prevent them from achieving a desired outcome. In the context of academic learning, the United Kingdom’s National Health Service defines a learning difficulty as “a type of Special Educational Need which affects areas of learning such as reading, writing, spelling, and mathematics.”
Neurological Disorders
A neurological disorder impairs the functions of neurons and brain systems. Genetic variants cause impairment of protein synthesis in neurons, affecting how neurons synapse with one another. Neurological disorders comprise three components: neurodevelopmental disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, and neurocognitive disorders. Examples of neurodevelopmental disorders include autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia, Down syndrome, and intellectual disability. Examples of neurodegenerative disorders include Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and motor neuron disease. Genetic variants are heritable in nature and may also be caused by environmental toxicity, including exposure to radioactivity, heavy metals in food, and pollution.
Psychological Disorders
A psychological disorder is an ongoing dysfunctional pattern of thought, emotion, and behaviour that causes significant distress and is considered deviant within a person’s culture or society (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007). Individuals with a psychological disorder may find their daily functioning impaired, their family life disrupted, and their social environment challenging, often leading to social withdrawal. Examples of psychological disorders include anxiety disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, paranoia, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), conduct disorder (CD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and various personality disorders. These disorders may be treated through psychotherapy and counselling as alternatives to pharmacological treatment.
Neurodevelopmental and Psychological Disorders
Neurodevelopmental and psychological disorders vary in degree of severity and are not mutually exclusive. They may cause learning difficulties in children due to impairments in memory, language, motor skills, speech, behaviour, cognitive abilities, social skills, and emotional regulation. Individualised intervention programmes developed by a qualified educational therapist can effectively assist children in overcoming these learning difficulties.
Neurocognitive Disorders
Neurocognitive disorders refer to a broad range of conditions that impair cognitive functions such as memory, attention, perception, and problem-solving. These include, but are not limited to, neurodegenerative diseases, delirium, traumatic brain injury, infections, vascular disorders, and exposure to toxins.
Neurodegenerative Disorders
Neurodegenerative disorders are a type of neurological disease characterised by the progressive loss and death of neurons, leading to impairment of cognitive, motor, and sensory functions. Examples include Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS).
Disruptive Behaviour Disorders
According to the DSM-5-TR, disruptive behaviour disorders are a group of mental health conditions characterised by patterns of defiant and hostile behaviour that persist for at least six months and cause significant impairment in social, academic, and occupational functioning. These behaviours often violate the rights of others and may involve aggression, destruction of property, or rule-breaking.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
Children with ODD display a persistent pattern of angry and irritable mood, argumentative and defiant behaviour, and vindictiveness towards authority figures such as parents, teachers, and other adults. These behaviours can cause significant distress for the child and their family, and may lead to impaired social and academic functioning.
Conduct Disorder (CD)
Conduct disorder involves persistent patterns of aggressive and antisocial behaviour, including physical violence, theft, and deceitfulness. Children with CD may disregard the rights and feelings of others, violate rules and laws, and engage in risky behaviours such as substance abuse. CD can cause significant impairment in social and academic functioning and may progress to more serious behavioural and legal problems in adulthood.
Intermittent Explosive Disorder (IED)
IED is characterised by sudden episodes of uncontrollable anger or aggression that are disproportionate to the situation. These outbursts may involve physical violence, destruction of property, or verbal aggression, and can cause significant distress and impairment in social and occupational functioning.
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)
DMDD is a relatively recent diagnosis characterised by severe and persistent irritability and temper outbursts that are disproportionate to the situation. These behaviours may occur frequently and can cause significant impairment in social and academic functioning.
Pyromania
Pyromania involves a persistent and intense preoccupation with fire and fire-setting, which can cause significant harm to oneself, others, or property. It is a rare diagnosis and is often associated with other mental health conditions such as ADHD, depression, or conduct disorder.
Kleptomania
Kleptomania is a mental health disorder characterised by a persistent and recurrent urge to steal objects that are not needed for personal use or monetary gain, despite the ability to afford them. It is a rare diagnosis and is often associated with other mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety disorders.
Treatment
Treatment for disruptive behaviour disorders typically involves a combination of medication and therapy, tailored to the type and severity of the disorder, as well as the age and individual needs of the child. Behavioural therapies are generally the first line of treatment, aimed at helping children manage their behaviour and emotions and improve their social skills. Commonly used approaches include Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Parent Management Training (PMT), and Multi-Systemic Therapy (MST).
Medication may also be prescribed to help manage symptoms. Stimulants such as methylphenidate are often used to treat ADHD, which frequently co-occurs with disruptive behaviour disorders, while antipsychotics such as risperidone may be used to address severe aggression and irritability associated with ODD and CD. Medication should always be used in conjunction with therapy and under the supervision of a qualified healthcare provider.
Early intervention is important in preventing long-term consequences such as mental disorders, violence, and delinquency. If you suspect that your child may have a disruptive behaviour disorder, it is essential to seek assessment and support from a qualified healthcare provider.
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Neurodivergence is not a deficit but a different way of thinking, learning, and experiencing the world. With the right understanding, support, and environment, neurodivergent individuals are able to explore and optimise their unique functional capabilities, unlocking their strengths and achieving their fullest potential. It is a lifelong journey of exploration, learning, and achievement that is deeply personal and profoundly meaningful.
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